Profile AnalysisPrint State Energy Profile
(overview, data, & analysis)
Last Updated: November 16, 2023
Overview
Massachusetts is the second-largest New England state and is home to almost half of the region's residents.1,2 It is one of the most densely populated states in the nation. However, most of the state's residents live in the eastern half of the state, particularly around Boston on the Atlantic coastal plain.3,4 Western Massachusetts is hilly and is much less densely populated. Elevations across the state rise from sea level around the coastal marshes of Cape Cod in the east to almost 3,500 feet in the Berkshire and Taconic Mountains in the west.5 Although Massachusetts has no fossil fuel reserves, the state does have several renewable energy resources, including solar energy, hydroelectric power, biomass, and wind. 6
Massachusetts uses less energy per dollar of economic output than all other states except New York.
Massachusetts consumes about 17 times more energy than it produces, but it is among the five states with the lowest per capita energy consumption.7,8 Massachusetts summers are generally mild and mid-winter temperatures, which are often below freezing, rarely fall below zero. Precipitation, as rain or snow, is equally distributed throughout the year.9 Although only one-tenth of the state is farmland, and half of that farmland is woodland or pasture, farming occurs in many of the state's counties, especially in the fertile Connecticut River valley in the center of the state.10,11 The ocean-moderated climate and coastal bogs of Plymouth and Cape Cod in eastern Massachusetts help make the state the nation's second-largest producer of cranberries.12,13 The residential, commercial, and transportation sectors each account for about three-tenths of the state's total energy use. The industrial sector, including agriculture, accounts for about one-tenth of the state's energy consumption, in large part because the state's economy relies on less energy-intensive service industries.14 Finance, insurance, real estate, and professional and business services are the largest contributors to the state's gross domestic product (GDP).15 As a result, Massachusetts uses less energy to produce a dollar of GDP than all other states, except New York.16
Electricity
Natural gas fueled two-thirds of Massachusetts' total in-state electricity net generation in 2022, and as of mid-2023, the state had more than two-fifths of the natural gas-fired generating capacity in New England, the largest share in the region.17 However, more than 1,400 megawatts of natural gas-fired capacity is scheduled for retirement in 2024. That is one-fifth of the state's total natural gas-fired capacity, and all of it is at one power plant.18 In 2022, renewable resources provided nearly three-tenths of Massachusetts' total in-state generation, and the largest share came from solar energy. Small-scale (less than 1-megawatt) solar photovoltaic (PV) systems accounted for more than three-fifths of the state's total solar capacity and nearly three-fifths of the state's total solar electricity generation in 2022.19,20 In mid-2023, small-scale solar accounted for two-thirds of Massachusetts' total solar capacity.21 All of the state's planned electricity generation additions will use renewable energy or natural gas.22
In 2022, Massachusetts consumed twice as much electricity as it generated.
Massachusetts' total in-state electricity net generation in 2022 was half of what it was in 2010, in part because of a reduction in coal- and petroleum-fired generation and the retirement of the state's only nuclear power plant. In 2001, coal fueled almost three-tenths of Massachusetts' electricity net generation, but by 2010 only one-fifth of state generation was coal-fired. Since mid-2017 there has been no utility-scale (1 megawatt or larger) coal-fired electricity generation in the state. Petroleum-fired generation, which primarily is used to meet peak electricity demand during winter, has decreased from more than one-fifth of the state's net generation in 2001 to about 3% in 2022. Before 2019, Massachusetts received between one-tenth and one-fifth of its electricity generation from the Pilgrim nuclear power plant located in Plymouth on Cape Cod Bay.23 Because of economic factors, the plant ceased generating electricity in May 2019 and is in the process of decommissioning.24 Massachusetts is part of the northeastern Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI). Created in 2005, RGGI is an 11-state cooperative effort to limit and reduce carbon emissions from power plants.25 With its declining use of coal and petroleum for electricity generation, the state has reduced its total greenhouse gas emissions. In 2021, Massachusetts' energy-related carbon dioxide emissions were less than in almost two-thirds of the states.26,27
Massachusetts' commercial sector accounts for almost half of the state's electricity retail sales, and the residential sector accounts for two-fifths.28 However, fewer than one in five Massachusetts households use electricity as their primary energy source for home heating, and electricity use for air conditioning is relatively low because of the mild Massachusetts summers.29,30 The industrial sector accounts for one-eighth of state electricity purchases, and the transportation sector uses less than 1%.31 Massachusetts' total electricity consumption, as measured by retail sales per capita, is less than in all but four other states.32 Nevertheless, Massachusetts consumes much more electricity than it generates.33,34 In 2022, the state generated only about half of the power it needed, and additional electricity was brought in over the regional grid.35,36
Renewable energy
About three-tenths of Massachusetts' total in-state electricity net generation comes from renewable resources. In 2022, renewable energy provided almost twice as much power as it did in 2015. With overall declines in the state's generation from all fuels, the share of the state's total generation from renewable resources more than doubled between 2015 and 2022. Solar arrays and rooftop panels contribute the largest share of Massachusetts' renewable generation and are found statewide.37,38 In 2022, nearly one-fifth of the state's total net generation, including small-scale generation, came from solar power, and the state ranked 10th in the nation in the amount of electricity generated from solar photovoltaic (PV) panels.39,40 As of mid-2023, the state had about 3,900 megawatts of installed solar capacity.41
Massachusetts plans to acquire 5,600 megawatts of offshore wind power by 2027.
Conventional hydroelectric power and biomass supply almost equal amounts of power. In 2022, hydropower was the second-largest source of in-state renewable electricity and accounted for about 4% of the state's total net generation.42 The region's longest river, the Connecticut, cuts across central Massachusetts and, along with other rivers, provides the state with hydropower resources. There are 31 conventional hydroelectric power plants in Massachusetts and two hydroelectric pumped storage facilities. In the 19th century, many dams were built on the state's rivers to provide mechanical power to industrial mills. South Hadley Falls, the highest falls on the Connecticut River, is in central Massachusetts near the city of Holyoke. The state's oldest operating hydroelectric power plant, built in 1893, is located there.43,44,45 Biomass has been used for power generation in Massachusetts for decades, and it was the third-largest source for the state's renewable-sourced electricity in 2022, when it provided about 4% of the total in-state electricity net generation.46,47 Although more than three-fifths of Massachusetts is forested, the state's primary biomass resource used for electricity generation is municipal solid waste.48,49 Biomass, primarily from urban waste, fuels several power plants in the eastern half of the state.50 Massachusetts' biomass power plants had a total of about 278 megawatts of capacity as of mid-2023, and those fueled with municipal solid waste accounted for 81% of the state's total capacity at biomass plants.51,52
Wind power accounted for about 1% of Massachusetts' total net generation in 2022.53 The state has 21 utility-scale wind power facilities with a combined 102 megawatts of generating capacity.54,55 Offshore winds in the east and onshore winds on Massachusetts' western mountain ridges provide the state with substantial wind energy resources.56 Although most of the onshore commercial wind development in Massachusetts is along the coast, the largest wind farms and the largest share of the state's wind generating capacity, almost half, is at two projects in the mountains near the state's northwestern border.57 Massachusetts' first offshore wind farm, which is expected to have 800 megawatts of generating capacity, is in development 15 miles south of Martha's Vineyard. However, regulatory approvals are pending and construction has not yet begun.58,59 Additional wind projects are in development in the state's federal offshore areas.60 State legislation required utilities to conduct competitive solicitations for offshore wind capacity and to enter into cost-effective, long-term contracts for offshore wind energy generation equal to about 1,600 megawatts by mid-2027 and an additional 1,600 megawatts by 2035.61,62,63 Massachusetts has since increased its offshore wind energy goals and now intends to solicit proposals for 5,600 megawatts of offshore wind power by 2027.64 Because of the rising costs of offshore wind power projects, offshore wind development companies have been struggling. As a result, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massachusetts agreed in October 2023 to assist offshore wind development by promising to jointly purchase 6,000 megawatts of offshore wind power from energy companies in 2024.65
Massachusetts' renewable portfolio standard (RPS) set a goal that 40% of electricity sales be from renewables by 2030, with a 1% increase required each year after that. The RPS applies to investor-owned utilities and retail electricity suppliers, and included further requirements that part of sales be met with generation from older renewable installations. Carve-outs were established requiring that solar and waste energy sources contribute a portion of all power sales.66,67
Petroleum
Massachusetts has no crude oil production, reserves, or refineries.68,69 The Port of Boston, one of the nation's oldest seaports, has storage terminals that supply most of the petroleum products used in Massachusetts.70 Refined products are transported to Boston Harbor by ship or barge from refineries in the United States, Canada, and other countries for redistribution inland.71,72 Additionally, two small-capacity petroleum product pipelines run from ports in Connecticut and Rhode Island to terminals in central Massachusetts.73 Petroleum products also enter Massachusetts by truck.74,75
One of the three Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve storage sites is located in Revere, Massachusetts.
The transportation sector uses about three-fourths of the petroleum consumed in Massachusetts, primarily as motor gasoline and diesel fuel.76,77 Motor gasoline sold in the state is blended with ethanol to reduce smog-forming and toxic pollutants.78,79 The residential sector, where about one in four Massachusetts households heat with petroleum products, accounts for about one-seventh of state use.80 The industrial and commercial sectors almost evenly split the rest with each sector using about 5%. The electric power sector uses a very small amount to fuel generation when there is increased electricity demand on high use days.81
Massachusetts, like much of New England, is vulnerable to distillate fuel oil shortages and price spikes during the winter months. In 2000, the U.S. Department of Energy created the Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve to protect against heating fuel shortages. The reserve holds 1 million barrels of ultra-low sulfur diesel (ULSD) in terminals at three locations in the Northeast, one is located in Revere, Massachusetts. That site can store 400,000 barrels of ULSD.82 All the northeastern states, including Massachusetts, require that home heating oil be ULSD, which has sulfur levels that are no greater than 15 parts per million.83 In 2014, the U.S. Department of Energy also created the Northeast Gasoline Supply Reserve to counter motor fuel supply disruptions caused by hurricanes, winter storms, and other natural events. Massachusetts became home to one of the three storage sites that make up that 1-million-barrel federal Reserve.84
Natural gas
Massachusetts has New England’s only operating LNG import terminals.
Massachusetts does not have any natural gas reserves or production.85,86 The state receives its natural gas supply from interstate pipelines and liquefied natural gas (LNG) import terminals. Pipeline deliveries of natural gas have shifted as production from the Marcellus and Utica shales in the Appalachians has offset shipments from other regions.87 Natural gas production also comes from offshore Nova Scotia in Canada.88 In recent years, pipeline infrastructure has been added to transport natural gas deliveries to the Northeast.89,90 Most of the natural gas that enters Massachusetts by pipeline comes through New York and Rhode Island.91 Additional pipeline deliveries come via a pipeline that traverses Maine and New Hampshire to deliver offshore, onshore, and LNG-sourced natural gas from Canada.92 The natural gas that is not consumed in the state is typically sent by pipeline to Rhode Island and New Hampshire. A small amount is sent to Connecticut.93
Although Massachusetts receives most of its natural gas supplies by pipeline through other states, natural gas also arrives by tanker at the state's LNG terminals. Because of New England's limited natural gas pipeline infrastructure, LNG imports help to meet natural gas demand in the region.94 Massachusetts has the only LNG import terminals in New England, one at Everett on Boston Harbor and two offshore in Massachusetts Bay, only one of which is active.95,96,97,98 In 2022, the Everett terminal received 82% of the nation's total LNG imports, all of it from Trinidad and Tobago.99,100 The Everett terminal is connected to regional pipelines, a natural gas utility, and a power plant. LNG is also transported by truck to storage tanks for several local natural gas distribution companies. The Northeast Gateway, one of the two offshore terminals, did not receive any LNG imports in 2020 or 2021, but it did receive a shipment in early 2022. The other offshore terminal, Neptune Deepwater Port, has been inactive since it received initial LNG deliveries at the time of the facility's completion in 2010. LNG provides more than one-fourth of New England's natural gas supplies during peak heating demand days in the winter.101 Like other New England states, Massachusetts has no underground natural gas storage and depends on storage capacity in other states for the natural gas needed to meet peak winter demand for heating and for electricity generation.102 As increasing amounts of natural gas are used for electricity generation in Massachusetts and throughout New England, assurance of natural gas supply remains a critical energy issue for the region.103
Massachusetts consumers typically account for nearly half of the natural gas used in New England.104 In 2022, 32% of the natural gas delivered to Massachusetts consumers went to the residential sector.105 Slightly more than half of households in the state rely on natural gas as their primary energy source for home heating.106 Although the electric power sector was the largest consumer of natural gas for almost two decades, it has used less than the residential sector since 2019. 107 In 2022, the electric power sector accounted for about 29% of the natural gas delivered to consumers, slightly more than was delivered to the commercial sector, which consumed 28%. The industrial sector used about 11%, and a very small amount was delivered to the transportation sector.108
Coal
Massachusetts does not have any coal mines, reserves, or production.109 There is no longer any utility-scale coal-fired electricity generation in Massachusetts.110 The state's last operational coal-fired generating plant, the 1,488-megawatt Brayton Point plant located on the coast at Somerset, was permanently shut down as of June 2017.111 Massachusetts was one of six states with no utility-scale coal-fired generation in 2022.112 A very small number of Massachusetts households heat with coal.113
Endnotes
1 NETSTATE, 50 State Rankings for Size, updated September 9, 2017.
2 U.S. Census Bureau, Quick Facts, Vermont; Rhode Island; New Hampshire; Maine; Massachusetts; Connecticut, Population estimates July 1, 2022.
3 States 101, U.S. States Populations, Land Area, and Population Density, accessed October 1, 2023.
4 U.S. Census Bureau, 2010 Census: Massachusetts Profile, Population Density by Census Tract.
5 NETSTATE, The Geography of Massachusetts, The Land, updated February 25, 2016.
6 U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), Massachusetts Profile Data, Reserves and Environment, accessed October 1, 2023.
7 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table P3, Energy Production and Consumption Estimates in Trillion Btu, 2021.
8 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C14, Total Energy Consumption Estimates per Capita by End-Use Sector, Ranked by State, 2021.
9 Massachusetts Climate, The CoCoRaHS ‘State Climates' Series, "Climate of Massachusetts," accessed October 1, 2023.
10 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, State Fact Sheets: Massachusetts, Farm Characteristics, updated September 5, 2023.
11 University of Massachusetts Amherst, Center for Agriculture, Food, and the Environment, Geography of Farms, accessed October 1, 2023.
12 Statista, Total cranberry production in the United States in 2022, by state (in 1,000 barrels), accessed October 1, 2023.
13 Beckius, Kim Knox, "Visiting Cranberry Bogs in Massachusetts," Tripsavvy, updated May 10, 2019.
14 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C1, Energy Consumption Overview: Estimates by Energy Source and End-Use Sector, 2021.
15 U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, Interactive Data, Regional Data, GDP & Personal Income, Annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by State, GDP in Current Dollars, Massachusetts, All statistics in table, 2022.
16 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C10, Total Energy Consumption Estimates, Real Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Energy Consumption Estimates per Real Dollar of GDP, Ranked by State, 2021.
17 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (October 2023), Table 6.2.C.
18 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of September 2023 and Inventory of Planned Generators as of September 2023.
19 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (February 2023), Table 6.2.B.
20 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, Fuel Type (Check all), Annual, 2001-22.
21 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (October 2023), Table 6.2.B.
22 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of September 2023 and Inventory of Planned Generators as of September 2023.
23 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, Fuel Type (Check all), Annual, 2001-22.
24 Entergy, "Pilgrim Nuclear Power Station Shut Down Permanently," Press Release (May 31, 2019).
25 Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative, accessed October 2, 2023.
26 Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emissions, accessed October 2, 2023.
27 U.S. EIA, Rankings: Total Carbon Dioxide Emissions, 2021.
28 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Retail sales of electricity, Massachusetts, All sectors, Residential, Commercial, Industrial, Transportation, Other, Annual, 2022.
29 U.S. Census Bureau, Massachusetts, Table B25040, House Heating Fuel, 2022 ACS 1-Year Estimates Detailed Tables.
30 U.S. EIA, Household Energy Use in Massachusetts, accessed October 2, 2023.
31 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Retail sales of electricity, Massachusetts, All sectors, Residential, Commercial, Industrial, Transportation, Other, Annual, 2022.
32 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C17, Electricity Retail Sales, Total and Residential, Total and per Capita, Ranked by State, 2021.
33 ISO New England, Operating the Power System, accessed October 2, 2023.
34 U.S. EIA, Massachusetts Electricity Profile, 2021, Tables 1, 10.
35 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Retail sales of electricity, Massachusetts, All sectors, Annual, 2022.
36 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, All fuels, Small-scale photovoltaic, Annual, 2022.
37 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, Fuel Type (Check all), Annual, 2001-22.
38 U.S. EIA, Massachusetts Profile Overview, Interactive GIS Data Viewer Solar Power Plant Map Layer, accessed October 3, 2023.
39 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, All fuels, All solar, All utility-scale solar, Small-scale solar photovoltaic, 2022.
40 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (February 2023), Table 1.17.B.
41 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (October 2023), Table 6.2.B.
42 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, All fuels, Conventional hydroelectric, Other renewables, Wind, Biomass, All utility-scale solar, Small-scale solar photovoltaic, 2022.
43 Connecticut River Conservancy, Watershed Facts, accessed October 3, 2023.
44 Lotspeich, Charlie, "Water Power to the People of Holyoke," Valley Advocate (June 4, 2009).
45 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of September 2023.
46 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, All fuels, Conventional hydroelectric, Other renewables, Wind, Biomass, All utility-scale solar, Small-scale solar photovoltaic, 2001-22.
47 U.S. EIA, Massachusetts Electricity Profile 2021, Table 5.
48 University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MassWoods, Massachusetts Forests, accessed October 4, 2023.
49 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of September 2023.
50 U.S. EIA, Massachusetts Profile Overview, Interactive GIS Data Viewer Biomass Power Plant Map Layer, accessed October 4, 2023.
51 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (October 2023), Table 6.2.B.
52 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of September 2023.
53 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, All fuels, Wind, Small-scale solar photovoltaic, Annual, 2022.
54 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (October 2023), Table 6.2.B.
55 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of September 2023.
56 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, WINDExchange, Wind Energy in Massachusetts, Maps & Data, Offshore Wind Speed, accessed October 5, 2023.
57 U.S. EIA, Massachusetts Profile Overview, Interactive GIS Data Viewer, Wind Power Plant Map Layer, accessed October 5, 2023.
58 Vineyard Wind, Vineyard Wind 1, Overview, accessed October 6, 2023.
59 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Planned Generators as of September 2023.
60 U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Massachusetts Activities, accessed October 6, 2023.
61 The 190th General Court of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Chapter 188, An Act to Promote Energy Diversity, approved August 8, 2016, Section 83C (b).
62 The 190th General Court of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Chapter 227, An Act to Advance Clean Energy, approved August 9, 2018, Section 21 (a).
63 Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources, Offshore Wind Study (May 2019), p. 20.
64 Mass.gov, Offshore Wind Update, News (June 23, 2022).
65 DiSavino, Scott, "New England states join to buy offshore wind power as US industry struggles," Reuters (October 4, 2023).
66 DSIRE, Massachusetts Renewable Portfolio Standard, updated September 1, 2023.
67 Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources, Renewable Energy Division, Program Summaries, accessed October 10, 2023.
68 U.S. EIA, Crude Oil Proved Reserves, Reserves Changes, and Production, Estimated Production and Proved Reserves as of 12/31, 2016-21.
69 U.S. EIA, Number and Capacity of Petroleum Refineries, Total Number of Operable Refineries, 2018-23.
70 Boston Harbor Now, Boston's Working Port: A Foundation for Innovation (January 2018), p. 11, 28-29.
71 U.S. EIA, Movements by Tanker and Barge between PAD Districts, Petroleum Products, 2017-22.
72 U.S. EIA, Petroleum and Other Liquids, Company Level Imports (January 2023-July 2023).
73 Buckeye Partners, L.P., System Map, accessed October 10, 2023.
74 U.S. Department of Energy, State of Massachusetts Energy Sector Risk Profile, p. 4, accessed October 10, 2023.
75 Rhode Island Department of Administration, Division of Planning, Energy 2035, Rhode Island State Energy Plan (October 8, 2015), p. 14-15.
76 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table F16, Total Petroleum Consumption Estimates, 2021.
77 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C2, Energy Consumption Estimates for Selected Energy Sources in Physical Units, 2021.
78 Larson, B. K., U.S. Gasoline Requirements as of January 2018, ExxonMobil, accessed October 10, 2023.
79 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Gasoline Standards, Reformulated Gasoline, "Opt-In" Areas, accessed October 10, 2023.
80 U.S. Census Bureau, Massachusetts, Table B25040, House Heating Fuel, 2022 ACS 1-Year Estimates Detailed Tables.
81 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table F16, Total Petroleum Consumption Estimates, 2021.
82 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Fossil Energy, Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve, History and About NEHHOR , accessed October 10, 2023.
83 Morgan, Mark S., "EPA and DOT document notification requirements for 15 PPM heating oil," New England Fuel Institute (May 18, 2018).
84 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Cybersecurity, Energy Security, and Emergency Response, Northeast Gasoline Supply Reserve, About NGSR, accessed October 10, 2023.
85 U.S. EIA, Natural Gas Reserves Summary as of Dec. 31, Dry Natural Gas, Annual, 2016-21.
86 U.S. EIA, Natural Gas Gross Withdrawals and Production, Gross Withdrawals, Annual, 2017-22.
87 Northeast Gas Association, NGA Regional Market Trends Update April 2022, p. 3-4.
88 Massachusetts Department of Public Utilities, Natural gas distribution, accessed October 18, 2023.
89 U.S. EIA, "New England natural gas pipeline capacity increases for the first time since 2010," Today in Energy (December 6, 2016).
90 Enbridge, Project Maple, accessed October 19, 2023.
91 U.S. EIA, International and Interstate Movements of Natural Gas by State, Massachusetts, Annual, 2017-22.
92 Maritimes and Northeast Pipeline, System Map (April 7, 2009).
93 U.S. EIA, International and Interstate Movements of Natural Gas by State, Massachusetts, Annual, 2017-22.
94 U.S. EIA, "Liquefied natural gas imports limited price spikes in New England this winter," Today in Energy (May 13, 2019).
95 U.S. Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, North American LNG Import Terminals, Existing, updated April 16, 2021.
96 Constellation, Everett LNG Facility, accessed October 19, 2023.
97 Engie, Neptune LNG, accessed October 19, 2023.
98 Excelerate Energy, Northeast Gateway Deepwater Port, accessed October 19, 2023.
99 U.S. EIA, International and Interstate Movements of Natural Gas by State, Massachusetts, Annual, 2017-22.
100 U.S. EIA, Natural gas explained, Liquified natural gas, accessed October 19, 2023.
101 Northeast Gas Association, About LNG, The Role of LNG in the Northeast Natural Gas (and Energy) Market, Recent LNG Imports into New England, and Use of LNG in the Northeast, accessed October 19, 2023.
102 U.S. EIA, Underground Natural Gas Storage Capacity, Total Storage Capacity, Annual, 2017-22.
103 ISO-New England, Natural Gas Infrastructure Constraints, accessed October 19, 2023.
104 U.S. EIA, Natural Gas Annual Supply and Disposition by State, Consumption, Annual, 2017-22.
105 U.S. EIA, Natural Gas Consumption by End Use, Massachusetts, Annual, 2017-22.
106 U.S. Census Bureau, Massachusetts, Table B25040, House Heating Fuel, 2022 ACS 1-Year Estimates Detailed Tables.
107 U.S. EIA, Massachusetts Natural Gas Deliveries to Electric Power Consumers and Massachusetts Natural Gas Residential Consumption, 2001-22.
108 U.S. EIA, Natural Gas Consumption by End Use, Massachusetts, Annual, 2017-22.
109 U.S. EIA, Annual Coal Report 2022 (October 2023), Tables 1, 15.
110 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, All fuels, Coal, 2001-22.
111 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of September 2023, and Inventory of Retired Generators as of September 2023.
112 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Annual (October 2023), Table 3.8.
113 U.S. Census Bureau, Massachusetts, Table B25040, House Heating Fuel, 2022 ACS 1-Year Estimates Detailed Tables.