Profile AnalysisPrint State Energy Profile
(overview, data, & analysis)
Last Updated: December 19, 2024
Overview
Massachusetts is the second-largest New England state and is home to nearly half of the region's residents.1,2 It is the third most densely populated state in the nation.3 However, most of the state's residents live in the eastern half of the state, particularly around Boston on the Atlantic coastal plain.4 Western Massachusetts is hilly and is much less densely populated. Elevations across the state rise from sea level around the coastal marshes of Cape Cod in the east to almost 3,500 feet in the Berkshire and Taconic Mountains in the west.5 Although Massachusetts has no fossil fuel reserves, the state does have a variety of renewable energy resources, including solar, hydropower, biomass, and wind.6
Massachusetts uses less energy per dollar of economic output than all other states except California and New York.
Massachusetts consumes 25 times more energy than it produces, but it is among the five states with the lowest per capita energy consumption.7,8 Massachusetts summers are generally mild and winters cold and snowy. Weather is affected by the jet stream and rain or snow is equally distributed throughout the year.9 Although only one-tenth of the state is farmland, and half of that farmland is woodland or pasture, farming occurs in many of the state's counties, especially in the fertile Connecticut River valley in the center of the state.10,11,12 The ocean-moderated climate and coastal bogs of Plymouth and Cape Cod in eastern Massachusetts help make the state the nation's second-largest producer of cranberries, the state's largest food crop.13,14 The transportation, residential, and commercial sectors each account for about three-tenths of the state's total energy use. The industrial sector, including agriculture, accounts for about one-tenth of energy consumption, in large part because the state's economy relies on less energy-intensive service industries.15 Finance, insurance, real estate, and professional and business services are the largest contributors to the state's GDP.16 As a result, Massachusetts uses less energy to produce a dollar of GDP than all other states except California and New York.17
Massachusetts is part of the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI). Created in 2005, RGGI is an 11-state cooperative effort to limit and reduce carbon emissions from power plants.18 With its declining use of coal and petroleum for electricity generation, the state has reduced its total greenhouse gas emissions. In 2022, Massachusetts's energy-related carbon dioxide emissions were less than in three-fifths of the states.19,20
Electricity
Natural gas fueled 63% of Massachusetts's total in-state electricity net generation in 2023, and the state had about two-fifths of the natural gas-fired generating capacity in New England, the largest share in the region.21,22 However, in June 2024 the natural gas-fired Mystic Generating Station, with 1,413 megawatts of generating capacity, was retired.23 The plant represented one-fifth of the state's total natural gas-fired capacity.24 In 2023, renewable resources provided 34% of Massachusetts's total in-state generation, and the largest share came from solar energy. Small-scale (less than 1-megawatt) solar photovoltaic (PV) systems accounted for two-thirds of the state's total solar electricity generation in 2023.25 In mid-2024, small-scale solar, mostly rooftop solar panel systems, accounted for two-thirds of Massachusetts's total solar capacity.26 All of the state's planned additional electricity generating capacity through 2025 will use renewable energy, such as solar and wind.27
Massachusetts's total in-state generation in 2023 was about half of what it was in 2010, in part because of a reduction in coal- and petroleum-fired generation and the retirement of the state's only nuclear power plant. In 2010, coal fueled one-fifth of Massachusetts's electricity net generation, but since mid-2017, the state has had no utility-scale (1 megawatt or larger) coal-fired electricity generation. Petroleum-fired generation, which primarily is used to meet peak electricity demand during winter, fueled less than 1% in 2023.28 Massachusetts has had no nuclear power generation since 2019, when the state's only nuclear plant was retired. The 2,028-megawatt Pilgrim nuclear power plant, located in Plymouth, had provided up to one-fifth of the state's annual electricity generation until it shutdown.29,30
In 2023, Massachusetts consumed twice as much electricity as it generated.
Massachusetts's commercial sector accounts for almost half of the state's electricity retail sales, and the residential sector accounts for nearly two-fifths.31 However, only one in five Massachusetts households use electricity as their primary energy source for home heating, and electricity use for air conditioning is relatively low because of the state's mild summers.32,33,34 The industrial sector accounts for about one-eighth of state electricity purchases, and the transportation sector uses less than 1%.35 Massachusetts is among the five states with the lowest total electricity consumption, as measured by retail sales on a per capita basis.36 Nevertheless, Massachusetts consumes much more electricity than it generates.37 In 2023, the state generated less than half of the power it needed, and additional electricity was brought in over the regional grid.38,39,40 Massachusetts had the third-highest residential electricity price in the nation in 2023.41
In October 2024, Massachusetts had 3,233 public electric vehicle charging locations, ranking fifth in the nation and the highest in New England.42 The state is among the top 10 states in the nation in total electric vehicle adoption, and Massachusetts accounts for 53% of all electricity consumed by light-duty vehicles across New England.43,44
Renewable energy
Renewable resources provided 34% of Massachusetts's total in-state electricity net generation in 2023. With overall declines in the state's generation from all fuels, the share of the state's total generation from renewable resources has more than doubled since 2017. Solar energy from both utility-scale (1 megawatt and larger) and customer-sited, small-scale (less than 1 megawatt) photovoltaic (PV) installations contribute the largest share of Massachusetts's renewable generation and are found statewide.45 In 2023, nearly one-fourth of the state's total net generation, including small-scale generation, came from solar power, and the state ranked 10th in the nation in the amount of electricity generated from solar PV panels.46,47 In September 2024, the state had about 4,300 megawatts of installed solar capacity.48
In 2023, hydropower was the second-largest source of in-state renewable electricity and accounted for about 5% of the state's total net generation.49 The region's longest river, the Connecticut River, cuts across central Massachusetts and, along with other rivers, provides the state with hydropower resources.50,51 Massachusetts has 29 conventional hydroelectric power plants and 2 hydroelectric pumped storage facilities.52 Pumped-storage hydroelectric plants generate electricity during peak demand periods, when power prices are higher, using water pumped into an elevated storage reservoir during off-peak periods. The pumped water is then released to flow back to a lower reservoir through turbine generators when additional power is needed.53,54 Biomass has been used for power generation in Massachusetts for decades, and it was the third-largest source for the state's renewable-sourced electricity in 2023, when it provided about 4% of the total in-state electricity generation.55,56 Although more than three-fifths of Massachusetts is forested, the state's primary biomass resource used for electricity generation is municipal solid waste.57,58 Biomass, primarily from municipal solid waste, fuels several power plants in the eastern half of the state.59 Massachusetts's biomass power plants had about 273 megawatts of total generating capacity as of September 2024.60,61
Massachusetts plans to acquire 5,600 megawatts of offshore wind power by 2027.
Wind power accounted for about 1% of Massachusetts's total generation in 2023.62 The state has 21 utility-scale wind power facilities with a total of about 102 megawatts of generating capacity.63,64 Offshore winds in the east and onshore winds on Massachusetts's western mountain ridges provide the state with substantial wind energy resources.65 Although most of the onshore commercial wind development in Massachusetts is along the coast, the largest wind farms and the largest share of the state's wind generating capacity, almost three-fifths, are located in the mountains near the state's northwestern border.66,67 Massachusetts's first offshore wind farm, Vineyard 1, located 14 miles south of Martha's Vineyard, came online in February 2024, with 5 of the 62 planned turbines in operation, currently generating 68 megawatts of power. Once fully operational, the project is expected to have about 800 megawatts of generating capacity.68,69 Additional wind projects are in development in the state's federal offshore areas.70,71 Massachusetts intends to solicit proposals for 5,600 megawatts of offshore wind power by 2027.72 Because of the rising costs of offshore wind power projects, offshore wind development has been delayed or canceled.73 As a result, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massachusetts agreed in October 2023 to assist offshore wind development by promising to jointly purchase up to 6,000 megawatts of offshore wind power from energy companies.74 In November 2024, Massachusetts and Rhode Island selected three offshore wind projects, which would generate 2,878 megawatts once completed.75 However, Connecticut declined to participate in the first-round selection of developers.76
Massachusetts's renewable portfolio standard (RPS) set a goal for 40% of electricity sales in the state to be generated from renewables by 2030, with a 1% increase required each year after that. The RPS applies to investor-owned utilities and retail electricity suppliers, and it includes further requirements that part of sales be met with generation from older renewable installations. Carve-outs were established requiring that solar and waste energy sources contribute a portion of all power sales.77,78 Massachusetts is also one of five New England states that mandates greenhouse gas reductions.79
Petroleum
Massachusetts has no crude oil production, reserves, or refineries.80,81 The Port of Boston is the nation's oldest continuously active seaport and has storage terminals that supply most of the petroleum products used in Massachusetts. Refined products are transported to Boston Harbor by ship or barge from refineries in the United States, Canada, and other countries for redistribution inland.82,83,84 Additionally, two small-capacity petroleum product pipelines run from ports in Connecticut and Rhode Island to terminals in central Massachusetts. Petroleum products also enter Massachusetts by truck.85,86
The transportation sector uses about three-fourths of the petroleum consumed in Massachusetts, primarily as motor gasoline and diesel fuel.87,88 Motor gasoline sold in the state is blended with ethanol to reduce smog-forming and toxic pollutants.89,90 The residential sector, where about one in four Massachusetts households heat with petroleum products, mainly heating oil, accounts for about one-seventh of state petroleum use.91 The industrial and commercial sectors almost evenly split the rest of the state's petroleum consumption, with each sector accounting for about 5%. The electric power sector uses a small amount of petroleum, about 1%, to fuel generation when electricity demand increases on high power demand days.92
Massachusetts is one of four states home to the storage sites of the Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve.
Massachusetts, like much of New England, is vulnerable to distillate fuel oil shortages and price spikes during the winter months. In 2000, the U.S. Department of Energy created the Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve to protect against heating fuel shortages. The reserve holds 1 million barrels in four states in the Northeast, one is located in Revere, Massachusetts, storing 200,780 barrels.93 In 2012, the U.S. Department of Energy also created the Northeast Gasoline Supply Reserve to counter motor fuel supply disruptions caused by hurricanes, winter storms, and other natural events.94 Massachusetts was one of the states that had access to that 1-million-barrel gasoline reserve, but this reserve was sold off in July 2024.95
Natural gas
Massachusetts does not have any natural gas reserves or production.96,97 The state receives its natural gas supply from interstate pipelines and liquefied natural gas (LNG) import terminals.98 In recent years, pipeline infrastructure has been added to transport natural gas deliveries to the Northeast.99,100 Most of the natural gas that enters Massachusetts by pipeline comes through New York and Rhode Island.101 Additional pipeline deliveries come via a pipeline that traverses Maine and New Hampshire to deliver offshore, onshore, and LNG-sourced natural gas from Canada.102 The natural gas that is not consumed in the state is typically sent by pipeline to Rhode Island and New Hampshire. A small amount is sent to Connecticut.103
Massachusetts has New England’s only operating LNG import terminals.
Massachusetts also receives natural gas from the state's LNG terminals.104 Because of New England's limited natural gas pipeline infrastructure, LNG imports help to meet natural gas demand in the region.105 Massachusetts has the only LNG import terminals in New England, one at Everett on Boston Harbor and two offshore in Massachusetts Bay, only one of which is intermittently active.106,107,108,109 In 2023, the Everett terminal received 87% of the nation's total LNG imports, mostly from Trinidad and Tobago and a small amount from Jamaica.110 The Everett terminal is connected to regional pipelines, a natural gas utility, and the Mystic Generating Station power plant, which was closed in mid-2024. The Massachusetts Department of Public Utilities approved new supply contracts through 2030, which will keep the Everett LNG terminal operational. LNG is also transported by truck to storage tanks for several local natural gas distribution companies.111 The Northeast Gateway, one of the two offshore terminals in Massachusetts, did not receive any LNG imports in 2023, but did receive LNG in 2022. The other offshore terminal, Neptune Deepwater Port, has been inactive since it received initial LNG deliveries at the time of the facility's completion in 2010.112 LNG provides more than one-fourth of New England's natural gas supplies during peak heating demand days in the winter.113
Massachusetts has no underground natural gas storage and depends on storage capacity in other states for the natural gas needed to meet peak winter demand for heating and for electricity generation.114 As increasing amounts of natural gas are used for electricity generation in Massachusetts and throughout New England, assurance of natural gas supply remains a critical energy issue for the region.115
Massachusetts consumers typically account for about two-fifths of the natural gas used in New England.116 In 2023, the state's electric power sector overtook the residential sector as the largest consumer of natural gas for the first time since 2019, accounting for about 31% of the state‘s consumption. Massachusetts generated 76% of its electricity from natural gas, the third-highest share of any state, after Delaware and Rhode Island. The residential sector consumed about 29% of the natural gas delivered to consumers in Massachusetts.117,118 About half of households in the state rely on natural gas as their primary energy source for home heating.119 In 2023, the commercial sector consumed slightly less natural gas than was delivered to the residential sector, accounting for about 28% of consumption in Massachusetts. The industrial sector used 12%, and a very small amount was delivered to the transportation sector.120
Coal
Coal is not a part of Massachusetts's energy mix. The state does not have any operating coal mines, reserves, or production.121 Massachusetts is no longer home to any utility-scale coal-fired electricity generation.122 The state's last operational coal-fired generating plant, the 1,038-megawatt Brayton Point plant located on the coast at Somerset, was permanently shut down as of June 2017.123 Massachusetts was one of nine states with no utility-scale coal-fired generation in 2023.124 A very small number of Massachusetts households heat with coal.125
Endnotes
1 NETSTATE, 50 State Rankings for Size, updated September 9, 2017.
2 U.S. Census Bureau, Quick Facts, Vermont; Rhode Island; New Hampshire; Maine; Massachusetts; Connecticut, Population estimates July 1, 2023.
3 U.S. Census Bureau, Data & Maps, Historical Population Density Data (1910-2020), accessed December 2, 2024.
4 U.S. Census Bureau, State Profiles: 2020 Census, "Massachusetts Population Grew 7.4% to Over 7 Million from 2010 to 2020," August 25, 2021.
5 NETSTATE, The Geography of Massachusetts, The Land, updated February 25, 2016.
6 U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), Massachusetts Profile Data, Reserves and Environment, accessed November 7, 2024.
7 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table P3, Energy Production and Consumption Estimates in Trillion Btu, 2022.
8 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C14, Total Energy Consumption Estimates per Capita by End-Use Sector, Ranked by State, 2022.
9 North Carolina Institute for Climate Studies, NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, State Climate Summaries 2022, Massachusetts.
10 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, State Fact Sheets: Massachusetts, Farm Characteristics, updated September 5, 2024.
11 Massachusetts Department of Agricultural Resources, Agricultural Resources Facts and Statistics, accessed November 7, 2024.
12 Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Connecticut River Valley, accessed December 5, 2024.
13 U. S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, "U.S. cranberry production down 5 percent in 2023 forecast," updated November 22, 2023.
14 Cape Cod Cranberry Grower's Association, Massachusetts Cranberries, accessed December 6, 2024.
15 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C1, Energy Consumption Overview: Estimates by Energy Source and End-Use Sector, 2022.
16 U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, Interactive Data, Regional Data, GDP & Personal Income, Annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by State, GDP in Current Dollars, Massachusetts, All statistics in table, 2023.
17 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C10, Total Energy Consumption Estimates, Real Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Energy Consumption Estimates per Real Dollar of GDP, Ranked by State, 2022.
18 Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative, Inc., A brief history of RGGI and Elements of RGGI, accessed December 2, 2024.
19 Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Mitigating Greenhouse Gas Emissions, accessed December 2, 2024.
20 U.S. EIA, Environment, Energy-Related CO2 Emission Data Tables (October 29, 2024), Table 1, State Energy-Related Carbon Dioxide Emissions by Year, XLSX.
21 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, Fuel Type (Check all), Annual, 2023.
22 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (February 2024), Table 6.2.C.
23 U.S. EIA, "New England utility closes import-dependent gas-fired power plant, keeps LNG import option," Today In Energy (June 24, 2024).
24 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of October 2024 and Inventory of Planned Generators as of October 2024.
25 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, Fuel Type (Check all), Annual, 2023.
26 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (September 2024), Table 6.2.B.
27 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Planned Generators as of October 2024.
28 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, Fuel Type (Check all), Annual, 2001-23.
29 U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Facility Locator, Massachusetts and Pilgrim Nuclear Power Station, accessed December 2, 2024.
30 U.S. EIA State Electricity Profiles, Massachusetts Electricity Profile, 2023, Table 5.
31 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Retail sales of electricity, Massachusetts, All sectors, Residential, Commercial, Industrial, Transportation, Other, Annual, 2023.
32 U.S. Census Bureau, Tables, Table B25040, House Heating Fuel, Massachusetts, 2023 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates.
33 U.S. EIA, Residential Energy Consumption Survey (RECS), 2020 RECS Survey Data, State Data, CE3.1ST Annual household site end-use consumption in United States homes by state—total and averages, 2020 (June 2023).
34 North Carolina Institute for Climate Studies, NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information, State Climate Summaries 2022, Massachusetts.
35 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Retail sales of electricity, Massachusetts, All sectors, Residential, Commercial, Industrial, Transportation, Other, Annual, 2023.
36 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C17, Electricity Retail Sales, Total and Residential, Total and per Capita, Ranked by State, 2022.
37 U.S. EIA State Electricity Profiles, Massachusetts Electricity Profile, 2023, Table 10.
38 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Retail sales of electricity, Massachusetts, All sectors, Annual, 2023.
39 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, All fuels, Small-scale photovoltaic, Annual, 2023.
40 U.S. EIA, State Electricity Profiles, Massachusetts Electricity Profile 2023, Table 10.
41 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (February 2024), Table 5.6.B.
42 U.S. EIA, Monthly Energy Review (November 2024), Appendix F monthly state file, XLS, Public Ports only and Public & Private Ports combined.
43 U.S. EIA, State Profiles and Energy Estimates, Table N4, Electric Light-Duty Vehicles Overview, 2022.
44 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (September 2024), Appendix D, D.3. Estimated State and Regional Consumption of Electricity by Light-Duty Vehicles, Annual.
45 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, Fuel Type (Check all), Annual, 2001-23.
46 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, All fuels, All solar, All utility-scale solar, Small-scale solar photovoltaic, 2023.
47 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (February 2024), Table 1.17.B.
48 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (September 2024), Table 6.2.B.
49 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, All fuels, Conventional hydroelectric, Other renewables, Wind, Biomass, All utility-scale solar, Small-scale solar photovoltaic, 2023.
50 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Mission, Civil Works, River Basins, Massachusetts River Basins, updated June 12, 2015.
51 U.S. EIA, Interactive GIS Data Viewer, Layer List: State Mask Massachusetts, Hydroelectric Power Plants, Pumped Storage Power Plants, accessed December 2, 2024.
52 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of October 2024.
53 U.S. EIA, "Most pumped storage electricity generators in the U.S. were built in the 1970s," Today in Energy (October 31, 2019).
54 U.S. EIA, Energy Explained, Hydropower explained, Hydroelectric power is produced with moving water, Pumped-storage hydropower facilities, updated April 20, 2023.
55 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, All fuels, Conventional hydroelectric, Other renewables, Wind, Biomass, All utility-scale solar, Small-scale solar photovoltaic, 2001-23.
56 U.S. EIA, State Electricity Profiles, Massachusetts Electricity Profile 2023, Table 5.
57 University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MassWoods, Massachusetts Forests, accessed November 13, 2024.
58 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of October 2024.
59 U.S. EIA, Interactive GIS Data Viewer, Layer List: State Mask Massachusetts, Biomass Power Plants, December 6, 2024.
60 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (September 2024), Table 6.2.B.
61 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of October 2024.
62 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, All fuels, Wind, Small-scale solar photovoltaic, Annual, 2023.
63 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (September 2024), Table 6.2.B.
64 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of October 2024.
65 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, WINDExchange, Wind Energy in Massachusetts and Massachusetts 50-Meter Community-Scale Wind Resource Map, accessed November 12, 2024.
66 U.S. EIA, Interactive GIS Data Viewer, Layer List: State Mask Massachusetts, Wind Power Plant, accessed November 13, 2024.
67 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Planned Generators as of October 2024.
68 Commonwealth of Massachusetts, "Vineyard, Wind, America's First Large-Scale Offshore Wind Farm, Delivers Full Power from 5 Turbines to the New England Grid," Press Release (February 22, 2024).
69 Vineyard Wind, Vineyard Wind 1, Overview, accessed November 13, 2024.
70 U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Massachusetts Activities, accessed December 6, 2024.
71 Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Energy, Renewable Energy, Offshore Wind, accessed December 6, 2024.
72 Commonwealth of Massachusetts, News, Offshore Wind Update - 2022 Q1 and Q2, updated June 23, 2022.
73 U.S. EIA, "Cancellations reduce expected U.S. capacity of offshore wind facilities," Today in Energy (July 9, 2024).
74 DiSavino, Scott, "New England states join to buy offshore wind power as US industry struggles," Reuters (October 4, 2023).
75 Commonwealth of Massachusetts, "Massachusetts and Rhode Island Announce Largest Offshore Wind Selection in New England History," Press Release (September 6, 2024).
76 Hurdle, John, "Multi-State Offshore Wind Pact Weakened After Connecticut Sits Out First Selection," Inside Climate News (November 13, 2024).
77 DSIRE, Massachusetts Renewable Portfolio Standard, updated August 29, 2024.
78 Massachusetts Department of Energy Resources, Renewable Energy Division, Program Summaries, accessed November 13, 2024.
79 ISO-New England, New England Power Grid State Profiles 2023-2024, accessed November 11, 2024.
80 U.S. EIA, Crude Oil Proved Reserves, Reserves Changes, and Production, Estimated Production and Proved Reserves as of 12/31, 2016-21.
81 U.S. EIA, Number and Capacity of Petroleum Refineries, Total Number of Operable Refineries, 2019-24.
82 ISO-New England, Oil Infrastructure (April 2021), p. 4.
83 U.S. EIA, Movements by Tanker and Barge between PAD Districts, Petroleum Products, 2018-23.
84 U.S. EIA, Petroleum and Other Liquids, Company Level Imports (September 2024), download XLSX.
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86 ISO-New England, Oil Infrastructure (April 2021), p. 5-7.
87 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table F16, Total Petroleum Consumption Estimates, 2022.
88 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C2, Energy Consumption Estimates for Selected Energy Sources in Physical Units, 2022.
89 Southern States Energy Board, U.S. Gasoline Requirements as of January 2018, accessed November 13, 2024.
90 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Gasoline Standards, Reformulated Gasoline, Table 3, accessed December 6, 2024.
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92 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table F16, Total Petroleum Consumption Estimates, 2022.
93 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Cybersecurity, Energy Security, and Emergency Response, Petroleum Reserve, Northeast Home Heating Oil Reserve, and NEHHOR History, accessed December 5, 2024.
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97 U.S. EIA, Natural Gas, Annual, Massachusetts - Natural Gas 2023.
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103 U.S. EIA, International and Interstate Movements of Natural Gas by State, Massachusetts, Annual, 2018-23.
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112 U.S. EIA, Natural Gas, U.S. Natural Gas Imports by Points of Entry, Annual, 2018-23.
113 Northeast Gas Association, 2021 Statistical Guide, p. 3.
114 U.S. EIA, Underground Natural Gas Storage Capacity, Total Storage Capacity, Annual, 2018-23.
115 North American Electric Reliability Corporation, 2023-2024 Winter Reliability Assessment, November 2023, p. 17.
116 U.S. EIA, Natural Gas Annual Supply and Disposition by State, Consumption, Annual, 2018-23.
117 U.S. EIA, Natural Gas Consumption by End Use, Massachusetts, Annual, 2018-23.
118 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (February 2024), Tables 1.3.B, 1.7.B.
119 U.S. Census Bureau, Tables, Table B25040, House Heating Fuel, Massachusetts, 2023 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates.
120 U.S. EIA, Natural Gas Consumption by End Use, Massachusetts, Annual, 2018-23.
121 U.S. EIA, Annual Coal Report (October 30, 2024), Tables 1, 15.
122 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors, Massachusetts, All fuels, Coal, 2001-23.
123 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of October 2024, and Inventory of Retired Generators as of October 2024.
124 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Annual (October 17, 2024), Table 3.8.
125 U.S. Census Bureau, Tables, Table B25040, House Heating Fuel, Massachusetts, 2023 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates.