Profile AnalysisPrint State Energy Profile
(overview, data, & analysis)
Last Updated: April 18, 2024
Overview
Isolated by the Pacific Ocean, Hawaii’s petroleum use as a share of its total energy consumption is the highest in the nation.
The Hawaiian Islands chain stretches more than 1,500 miles across the central Pacific Ocean, from the largest island, Hawaii, in the southeast to the Kure Atoll in the northwest. The eight main islands and the more than 100 uninhabited reefs, shoals, and atolls are about 2,400 miles from California and 3,900 miles from Japan, making them farther from a major landmass than any other island group on earth.1,2 Hawaii's geographic isolation makes its energy infrastructure unique among the states.3 Hawaii consumes almost nine times more energy than it produces.4 About four-fifths of Hawaii's energy consumption is petroleum, the highest share among the states.5
Hawaii's islands, which are the tops of volcanos that rise more than 30,000 feet above the sea floor, are located about 1,500 miles north of the equator.6,7 Steady trade winds and the surrounding ocean moderate the temperatures on the tropical islands. Rainfall is heaviest on the windward side of the islands, where moisture is released as winds move up the mountain slopes, while the leeward slopes remain relatively dry. Hawaii is the only U.S. state with tropical rainforests. Extremes of heat, cold, rainfall, and even snow can occur at higher elevations. However, at lower elevations the state's climate is generally pleasantly warm, with little variation year-round.8,9 Although the largest island in the state is Hawaii, most of the state's population lives on the island of Oahu. On all of the islands, population centers cluster at lower elevations in the coastal areas where the weather is mild and access to services is greatest.10,11
Hawaii has the third-lowest total energy use among the states and ranks lowest in per capita energy consumption.12,13 Hawaii's economy is not energy intensive and ranks ninth among the states in the least amount of energy used per dollar of GDP.14 Major contributors to the state's economy are real estate, tourism, construction, government, and the U.S. military.15 The transportation sector accounts for 53% of the energy consumed in Hawaii, mostly in the form of jet fuel and motor gasoline, followed by the industrial sector at 18%, the commercial sector at about 15%, and the residential sector at 14%. Hawaii's mild climate contributes to the state's residential sector energy consumption being the lowest in the nation.16
Petroleum
Hawaii has no proved crude oil reserves or production, but it does refine crude oil into petroleum products.17,18 The state has one crude oil refinery, located in the Honolulu port area on Oahu, which can process about 94,000 barrels of crude oil per calendar day.19,20 The refinery's crude oil comes primarily from Libya, Argentina, and Brazil.21 The local refinery supplies much of Hawaii's demand for petroleum products, but the state also imports refined petroleum products, including jet fuel, propane, low-sulfur diesel fuel, and motor gasoline, from countries in Asia, the Caribbean, and South America.22 Suppliers offload crude oil into storage tanks in the Oahu refinery area through offshore mooring systems, and load refined products at Honolulu harbor terminals onto fuel barges for distribution to other islands. Hawaii has no inter-island pipelines, but there are pipeline systems on some islands that distribute petroleum products to customers.23,24,25
Jet fuel makes up almost half of Hawaii’s petroleum consumption.
The transportation sector uses almost two-thirds of all petroleum consumed in Hawaii, and the electric power sector uses about one-fourth. Together, the industrial, commercial, and residential sectors make up the remaining one-tenth of the state's petroleum use.26 Jet fuel accounts for nearly half of the petroleum products consumed in the state. Because of significant demand from military installations and commercial airlines, jet fuel makes up a larger share of total petroleum consumption in Hawaii than in any other state, except for Alaska. Motor gasoline accounts for three-tenths of the state's petroleum use.27 To help reduce its reliance on petroleum, Hawaii has implemented a series of incentives for electric vehicles, including designated parking spots in public garages, free parking in government lots and at parking meters, and rebates for installing charging stations.28,29
Electricity
Petroleum products are used to generate the majority of Hawaii's electricity, but renewable energy has contributed an increasing share of the state's annual generation in the past decade. In 2023, petroleum fueled 67% of the state's total electricity generation from utility-scale (1 megawatt or larger) and small-scale (less than 1 megawatt) generating systems.30 About 124 megawatts of petroleum-fired generating capacity has been retired since 2014. Hawaii utilities plan to retire more petroleum-fired generating units, including 32 megawatts of capacity at the end of 2028, and add renewable energy-powered generating units and related battery storage.31,32,33,34
Renewable energy sources—solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, and hydropower—supplied most of rest of the state's electricity. The share of Hawaii's total electricity generation produced by all renewable sources, including from small-scale solar such as customer-sited rooftop solar panels, was 31% statewide in 2023. However, the share of renewable generation was higher on some of Hawaii's individual islands.35,36
In 2023, there was no utility-scale, coal-fired generation in Hawaii for the first time since the early 1970s. The state's last utility-scale coal-fired power plant, a 180-megawatt facility on Oahu, closed in September 2022 as required by state law as part of Hawaii's efforts to transition to 100% electricity generation from renewables.37,38 The state has no natural gas-fired generation or nuclear power plants.39
About 95% of Hawaii's residents receive their power from Hawaiian Electric, which operates on five of the state's six main islands. An electric cooperative provides power on the island of Kauai. Each of the six islands has a separate electricity grid. The grids are not connected by undersea electricity transmission cables, so each island is responsible for generating its own power.40,41,42 In August 2023, the Department of Energy awarded $95 million in federal funds to strengthen the grids on the five islands served by Hawaii Electric following the destructive and deadly windstorms and wildfires on Maui.43
Hawaii has the highest average electricity price in the nation.
The state's large use of petroleum for generating electricity and its isolated island grids contribute to Hawaii having the highest average electricity price of any state and more than triple the U.S. average.44,45 Hawaii's electricity demand is the fourth-lowest in the nation, after Vermont, Alaska, and Rhode Island. The state also has the lowest per capita electricity consumption.46,47 In 2023, the industrial sector accounted for the largest share of Hawaii's electricity sales, making up almost two-fifths of the total, followed by the commercial sector and the residential sector at about three-tenths each. In 2020, Hawaii's residential sector used more electricity than the commercial sector for the first time in more than two decades as mitigation efforts for the COVID-19 pandemic reduced tourism to the state. The commercial sector's electricity consumption exceeded residential power use in 2022 and 2023 after tourism increased.48 About 4 out of 10 households in Hawaii use electricity as their primary energy source for home heating. However, with Hawaii's mild tropical climate, heating is rarely needed and about 47% of households have no heating system, the highest share of any state.49
Renewable energy
Hawaii has substantial renewable resources throughout the island chain.50,51 In 2023, about three-tenths of Hawaii's total electricity (utility-scale and small-scale) was generated by renewable sources of energy. Solar power accounted for 60% of the state's renewable electricity generation and 19% of its total generation from all energy sources. Small-scale, customer-sited solar panel generation was more than twice as large as the state's utility-scale solar generation.52 Hawaii had the 11th-highest small-scale solar generation of any state in 2023.53 At the end of 2023, Hawaii had about 1,230 megawatts of total solar power generating capacity, with about 68% of that capacity installed as customer-sited small-scale solar panel systems.54 As of mid-2023, there were more than 100,000 small-scale residential and commercial solar generating systems, along with over 20,000 connected customer-sited energy storage batteries totaling 166 megawatts, on the five island grids operated by Hawaiian Electric.55 Hawaii has a net metering program, but it closed to new applicants in 2015. The program reached the maximum number of customers who can send excess electricity from their privately installed rooftop solar panels or other renewable systems to the grid for payment.56
Hawaii's largest solar farm, which went online in late 2019 with nearly 500,000 solar panels on the island of Oahu, has a generating capacity of about 49 megawatts. One of the state's newest solar farms, its third-largest with 36 megawatts of capacity, began operating in early 2023. The separate 185-megawatt Kapolei Battery Energy Storage facility, which stores electricity and then releases it to the grid when needed, began operating in late 2023. About 450 megawatts in new utility-scale solar power generating capacity and related battery energy storage are scheduled to come online in 2024.57,58,59,60 As part of Hawaii's commitment to renewable energy, since 2010 state building codes require all new single-family homes to have solar hot water heaters, with some exceptions.61,62
Hawaii has significant onshore and offshore wind resources, and wind energy generated 29% of the state's renewable electricity and 6% of its total electricity in 2023.63,64 The state has 233 megawatts of installed generating capacity at eight utility-scale wind farms.65,66,67 Hawaii has no offshore wind power turbines, although energy companies have proposed several offshore wind projects in federal waters around Oahu and the U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management sought additional nominations from companies interested in offshore commercial wind energy leases.68
Hawaii is one of seven states with utility-scale electricity generation from geothermal resources, which provided about 10% of the state's renewable electricity and about 3% of total power generation in 2023.69,70 The state's single geothermal power plant, located on the Kilauea Volcano on the Big Island, temporarily shut down in May 2018 after ground fissures and lava blocked access to it following an eruption of Kilauea. In November 2020, the plant came back online and its owners plan to increase the capacity of the plant from 38 megawatts to 46 megawatts by installing upgraded power-generating units.71,72,73,74
Hawaii has what is believed to be the world's largest commercial power generator fueled exclusively with biodiesel.
Biomass accounted for 9% of the Hawaii's renewable generation in 2023 and slightly less than 3% of the state's total generation.75 Biomass, mainly agricultural wastes such as bagasse from sugarcane, has long been used in rural Hawaii to generate heat and electricity. However, that source of biomass declined with the closure of many sugar plantations.76 Currently, Honolulu's 86-megawatt waste-to-energy power plant, which uses municipal solid waste to generate nearly one-tenth of Oahu's electricity, provides most of the state's biomass-fueled electricity.77,78 Several other smaller waste-to-energy and biomass generators operate on Oahu and Maui.79 A new biomass facility, located on a former sugar plantation, planned to burn local forest waste to generate electricity, but that project has been opposed because it is not carbon neutral.80,81,82 Biofuels also play an important role in Hawaii's power generation. The 120-megawatt Campbell Industrial Park Generating Station, which began service on Oahu in 2010, is believed to be the world's largest commercial power generator fueled exclusively with biodiesel.83 Hawaii's one operating biodiesel production plant has a capacity of 6 million gallons per year.84
Hawaii does not have rivers with large water flows that can support hydroelectric dams, but the state still produces some hydropower.85,86 The small hydroelectric turbines in use are run-of-river and run-of-the-ditch systems at sites on Maui, Kauai, and the Big Island. Hydropower provided about 3% of the state's renewable generation and almost 1% of total generation from all sources in 2023.87
In 2015, the Hawaii legislature amended the state's renewable portfolio standard (RPS) and made Hawaii the first state to set a legally required deadline, by the year 2045, to obtain 100% of its electricity sales from renewable energy sources. The legislature amended the RPS again in 2022, basing the RPS targets on electricity net generation instead of electricity sales starting in 2030.88,89,90,91 Hawaii set a separate energy efficiency standard to reduce electricity consumption by 40% by 2030. Originally, the energy efficiency standard was part of the RPS, but, in 2015, the standards were separated because of the different technologies and measurements required to assess each goal.92,93
Natural gas
Hawaii has no natural gas reserves and produces no conventional natural gas, but it produces synthetic natural gas (syngas).94,95 Hawaii is one of 12 states that produces syngas, and it is the third-largest syngas producer after North Dakota and Texas.96 An Oahu processing plant produces syngas, using naphtha feedstock from a local refinery, and delivers it via pipeline to parts of Oahu.97 Renewable natural gas is also produced in Hawaii in the form of methane created by the biogas from decomposing organic matter at a Honolulu wastewater treatment plant.98
Hawaii has the lowest natural gas consumption in the nation.
With its limited supply and distribution network, Hawaii has both the lowest total natural gas consumption in the nation and the lowest per capita consumption.99 In 2023, the commercial sector, which includes hotels and restaurants, consumed 77% of the natural gas in Hawaii. The residential sector accounted for 20% and the industrial sector used about 3%.100 Less than half of Hawaiian households have heating systems, and very few of those households, about 3 in 100, use natural gas as their primary heating fuel.101,102
Coal
Hawaii has no coal reserves and does not produce coal, but did receive coal from ocean freighters in the past.103 Hawaii's coal use began in the 1980s as a way to reduce the state's dependence on petroleum in both the industrial and electric power sectors.104 Coal was last used by Hawaii's electric power sector in late 2022, when the state's one utility-scale coal-fired power plant was retired.105,106,107
Endnotes
1 To-Hawaii.com, Hawaii Geography, accessed March 12, 2024.
2 Netstate, Hawaii, The Geography of Hawaii, updated February 25, 2016.
3 Glick, Mark, State Energy Administrator, Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism, State of Hawaii, Testimony before U.S. Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources (July 14, 2015), p. 1.
4 U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), State Energy Data System, Table P3, Total Primary Energy Production and Total Energy Consumption Estimates in Trillion Btu, 2021.
5 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C1, Energy Consumption Overview: Estimates by Energy Source and End-Use Sector, 2021.
6 Geology.com, Plate Tectonics and the Hawaiian Hot Spot, accessed March 12, 2024.
7 TimeandDate.com, Distance from Honolulu to Equator, accessed March 12, 2024.
8 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Weather Service, Honolulu, HI, Climate of Hawai'i, accessed March 13, 2024.
9 EdTechLens, One of a Kind: Visiting the Hawaiian Rainforest, accessed March 12, 2024.
10 To-Hawaii.com, Hawaii Population, accessed March 12, 2024.
11 U.S. Census Bureau, 2020 Census: Hawaii Profile.
12 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C14, Total Energy Consumption Estimates per Capita by End-Use Sector, Ranked by State, 2021.
13 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C11, Energy Consumption Estimates by End Use Sector, Ranked by State, 2021.
14 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C10, Total Energy Consumption Estimates, Real Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Energy Consumption Estimates per Real Dollar of GDP, Ranked by State, 2021.
15 U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, Interactive Data, Regional Data, GDP and Personal Income, Annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by State, SAGDP2 GDP in current dollars, Hawaii, All statistics in the table, 2022.
16 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C11, Energy Consumption Estimates by End Use Sector, Ranked by State, 2021.
17 U.S. EIA, Crude Oil Proved Reserves, Reserves Changes, and Production (Million Barrels), Annual, Proved Reserves as of December 31, 2021.
18 U.S. EIA, Crude Oil Production, Annual, Thousand Barrels, 2018-23.
19 U.S. EIA, Refinery Capacity Report (June 21, 2023), Table 3, Capacity of Operable Petroleum Refineries by State as of January 1, 2023.
20 Par Pacific, Par Hawaii, Overview, accessed March 13, 2024.
21 U.S. EIA, U.S. Crude Import Tracking Tool, Crude imports, Imports of all grades to Hawaii, annual, 2023.
22 U.S. EIA, Petroleum and Other Liquids, Company Level Imports, Hawaii, monthly, 2023.
23 Island Energy Services, Our Operations, accessed March 13, 2024.
24 Par Hawaii, Services, Refining, accessed March 13, 2024.
25 U.S. EIA, U.S. Energy Atlas, All Energy Infrastructure and Resources, Hawaii, accessed March 13, 2024.
26 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table F16, Total Petroleum Consumption Estimates, 2021.
27 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C4, Total End-Use Energy Consumption Estimates, 2021.
28 Hawaii State Energy Office, EV Laws & Incentives, accessed March 13. 2024.
29 Hawaiian Electric, Electric Vehicle Incentives, accessed March 13, 2024.
30 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors (thousand megawatthours), annual, Hawaii, 2001-23.
31 Hawaii Electric, Renewable Project Status Board, accessed March 13, 2024.
32 Kavoleski, Dave, "Hawaiian Electric to shut down oil-fired plants as it transitions to renewables," Daily Energy Insider (October 27, 2020).
33 Yerton, Stewart, "Renewable Energy Projects Are Back On Track After Pandemic Lull," Honolulu Civil Beat (January 17, 2023).
34 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of February 2024, Plant State: Hawaii, Technology: Petroleum Liquids, Planned Retirement Year: All, Inventory of Planned Generators as of February 2024, Plant State: Hawaii, Technology: All.
35 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors (thousand megawatthours), annual, Hawaii, 2001-23.
36 Hawaiian Electric, Power Facts 2023, Renewable energy percentage, O'Ahu, Hawai'I Island, and Maui County.
37 Jones, Caleb, "Hawaii quits coal in bid to fight climate change," Honolulu Star Advertiser (September 1, 2022).
38 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Retired Generators as of February 2024, Plant State: Hawaii, Technology: Conventional Steam Coal.
39 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors (thousand megawatthours), annual, Hawaii, 2001-23.
40 Hawaii State Energy Office, Hawaii's Energy Facts & Figures (November 2020), Hawaii's Electric Utilities, p. 7.
41 Hawaii Electric, Power Supply, accessed March 18, 2024.
42 Hawaiian Electric, Power Facts, accessed March 18, 2024.
43 U.S. Department of Energy, "U.S. Department of Energy awards $95 million to harden electric grids on Maui and other islands in wake of wildfires," Press Release (August 30, 2023).
44 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Annual (October 19, 2023), Table 2.10, Average Price of Electricity to Ultimate Customers by End-Use Sector, by state, 2022 and 2021 (Cents per kilowatthour), All Sectors.
45 Hawaiian Electric, Rates & Regulations, Average Price of Electricity, accessed March 18, 2024.
46 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Annual (October 19, 2023), Table 2.8, Sales of Electricity to Ultimate Customers by End-Use Sector, by State, 2022 and 2021 (Thousand Megawatthours).
47 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C17, Electricity Retail Sales per Capita, Ranked by State, 2021.
48 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Retail sales of electricity (million kilowatthours), annual, Hawaii, 2001-23.
49 U.S. Census Bureau, House Heating Fuel, Table B25040, 2022 ACS 1-Year Estimates Detailed Tables, Hawaii.
50 Hawaii State Energy Office, Renewable EnerGIS Map, accessed March 19, 2024.
51 U.S. EIA, U.S. Energy Atlas, All Energy Infrastructure and Resources, Hawaii, accessed March 19, 2024.
52 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors (thousand megawatthours), annual, Hawaii, 2001-23.
53 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Annual (October 19, 2023), Table 3.21, Net Generation from Solar Photovoltaic by State, by Sector, 2022 and 2021 (Thousand Megawatthours).
54 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Monthly (February 26, 2024), Table 6.2.B, Net Summer Capacity Using Primarily Renewable Energy Sources and by State, December 2023 and 2022 (Megawatts).
55 Hawaii State Energy Office, Hawaii State Energy Office 2023 Annual Report, Batteries, p. 35.
56 Hawaiian Electric, Customer Renewable Programs, Net Energy Metering, accessed March 19, 2024.
57 Fernandes, Megan, "Renewable energy projects that came online in 2019," Pacific Business News (December 27, 2019).
58 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of February 2024, Plant State: Hawaii, Technology: Solar Photovoltaic, Inventory of Planned Generators as of February 2024, Plant State: Hawaii, Technology: Solar Photovoltaic
59 Kapolei Energy Storage, accessed March 19, 2024.
60 Baun, Robert, "Dedication of the Kapolei Energy Storage Facility," KITV (March 11, 2024).
61 NC Clean Energy Technology Center, DSIRE, Hawaii, Solar Water Heating Requirement for New Residential Construction, updated June 12, 2020.
62 Burnett, John, "Judge: DBEDT must adhere to solar water heater mandate," Hawaii Tribune Herald (February 7, 2019).
63 U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, WINDExchange, Wind Energy in Hawaii, Maps & Data, accessed March 19, 2024.
64 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors (thousand megawatthours), annual, Hawaii, 2001-23.
65 Hawaii State Energy Office, Hawaii Renewable Energy Projects Directory, Search Renewable Energy Projects, Wind, Proposed/Under Development, accessed March 19, 2024.
66 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of February 2024, Plant State: Hawaii, Technology: Offshore Wind Turbine, Inventory of Planned Generators as of February 2024, Plant State: Hawaii, Technology: Offshore Wind Turbine.
67 U.S. EIA, U.S. Energy Atlas, All Energy Infrastructure and Resources, Hawaii, accessed March 19, 2024.
68 U.S. Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Hawaii Activities, accessed March 19, 2024.
69 U.S. EIA, Electric Power Annual (October 19, 2023), Table 3.20, Utility Scale Facility Net Generation from Geothermal by State, by Sector, 2022 and 2021 (Thousand Megawatthours).
70 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors (thousand megawatthours), annual, Hawaii, 2001-23.
71 Richter, Alexander, "Puna geothermal power plant in Hawaii taken offline due to lava flows nearby," Think Geoenergy (May 4, 2018).
72 Hawaiian Electric, Renewable Energy Sources, Geothermal, Puna Geothermal Venture (PGV), accessed March 19, 2024.
73 Richter, Alexander, "Ormat resumes operation of the Puna geothermal power plant on Hawaii," Think Geoenergy (November 12, 2020).
74 Cariaga, Carlo, "Ormat receives PPA for expanded geothermal capacity at Puna, Hawaii," Think Geoenergy (July 25, 2022).
75 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors (thousand megawatthours), annual, Hawaii, 2001-23.
76 Hawaiian Electric, Renewable Energy Sources, Biomass, accessed March 20, 2024.
77 Covanta, Covanta Honolulu, accessed March 20, 2024.
78 Hawaii State Energy Office, Hawaii's Energy Facts & Figures (November 2020), Biomass Energy Projects and Production, p. 23.
79 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of February 2024, Plant State: Hawaii, Technology: Other Waste Biomass.
80 Honua Ola Bioenergy, accessed March 20, 2024.
81 "Hawaiʻi Supreme Court ruling means no energy production for Big Island biomass plant," Hawaii Public Radio (March 14, 2023).
82 Dobbyn, Paula, "Defunct Big Island Tree-Burning Plant Seeks $1 Billion In Damages From Hawaiian Electric," Honolulu Civil Beat (November 17, 2024).
83 Hawaiian Electric, Renewable Energy Sources, Biofuels, Biofuel for Oahu, Campbell Industrial Park, accessed March 20, 2024.
84 U.S. EIA, U.S. Biodiesel Plant Production Capacity (August 7, 2023), Detailed annual production capacity by plant is available in XLS, Hawaii.
85 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Operating Generators as of February 2024, Plant State: Hawaii, Technology: Conventional Hydroelectric.
86 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors (thousand megawatthours), annual, Hawaii, 2001-23.
87 U.S. EIA, Electricity Data Browser, Net generation for all sectors (thousand megawatthours), annual, Hawaii, 2001-23.
88 Lincoln, Malika, "Gov. Ige Signs Bill Setting 100% Renewable Energy Goal for State," Hawaii News Now (June 8, 2015).
89 U.S. EIA, "Hawaii and Vermont set high renewable portfolio standard targets," Today in Energy (June 29, 2015).
90 NC Clean Energy Technology Center, DSIRE, Hawaii, Renewable Portfolio Standard, updated August 10, 2022.
91 Hawaii State Energy Office, 2023 Annual Report, p. 17-18.
92 NC Clean Energy Technology Center, DSIRE, Hawaii, Energy Efficiency Portfolio Standard, Program Overview, updated July 30, 2020.
93 Hawaii State Energy Office, Energy Efficiency, accessed March 20, 2024.
94 U.S. EIA, Natural Gas Reserves Summary as of December 31 (Billion Cubic Feet), Dry Natural Gas, Annual, 2016-21.
95 U.S. EIA, Natural Gas Gross Withdrawals and Production (Volumes in Million Cubic Feet), Marketed Production, Annual, 2018-23.
96 U.S. EIA, Natural Gas, Supplemental Gas Supplies (Million Cubic Feet), Synthetic, Annual, Hawaii, 2017-22.
97 Hawai'i Gas, Clean Energy, Decarbonization and Energy Innovation, Synthetic Natural Gas (SNG), How SNG is Made and Distributed, accessed March 20, 2024.
98 Hawai'i Gas, Clean Energy, Decarbonization and Energy Innovation, Renewable Natural Gas, accessed March 20, 2024.
99 U.S. EIA, State Energy Data System, Table C16, Natural Gas Consumption, Total and per Capita, Ranked by State, 2021.
100 U.S. EIA, Natural Gas Consumption by End Use (Million Cubic Feet), Hawaii, Annual, 2018-23.
101 U.S. EIA, 2020 RECS Survey Data, State Data, Housing characteristics, Highlights for space heating in U.S. homes by state, 2020.
102 U.S. Census Bureau, House Heating Fuel, Table B25040, 2022 ACS 1-Year Estimates Detailed Tables, Hawaii.
103 U.S. EIA, Annual Coal Report 2022 (October 3, 2023), Table 1, Coal Production and Number of Mines by State and Mine Type, 2022 and 2021, Table 15, Recoverable Coal Reserves at Producing Mines, Estimated Recoverable Reserves, and Demonstrated Reserve Base by Mining Method, 2022.
104 Hawaii, Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism, State of Hawaii Energy Data and Trends (November 2015), p. 11-12, 21.
105 U.S. EIA, Coal Data Browser, Total Consumption, Quarterly, 2000-23.
106 Jones, Caleb, "Hawaii quits coal in bid to fight climate change," Honolulu Star Advertiser (September 1, 2022).
107 U.S. EIA, Preliminary Monthly Electric Generator Inventory (based on Form EIA-860M as a supplement to Form EIA-860), Inventory of Retired Generators as of February 2024, Plant State: Hawaii, Technology: Conventional Steam Coal.